Just sharing this here as we spent several days trying to figure out why our images were not crawled/visible by Google.
We identified the issue using the Live URL Inspection Tool in the Google Search Console and were eventually able to nail it down to the fact Cloudflare Mirage was enabled.
As soon as we disabled Mirage, everything worked instantly and images were visible by the crawler again.
We eventually decided to properly implement multiple image sizes/types ourselves for responsiveness and faster load times rather than using Mirage, which was super convenient but kind of a black box, with major side effects (CLS, SEO issues, etc.).